"Every society has some form of governmental system, a social mechanism for social control." Grunlan & Mayers 1988:202 This "system" consists of a means of maintaining law and order as it is defined within that society, and a means of regulating and maintaining the integrity of the group in relation to outside groups they have contact with. Political organization "includes the legal institutions by which the legal rights of every member of the society are safeguarded and his obligations to society are enforced. It includes the organization of local (village) government and a system of tribal or national government. It embraces also the means by which offensive or defensive action is taken against enemies who threaten the society either from outside or from within." Notes and Quieries 1967:132

In spite of tremendous diversity between the forms of political organization in tribal groups, there are certain repeated themes that seem to exist. Though rarely found on a map, tribal groups have territory defined. They share the benefits and loyalties that make them the in group and others the out group. There will be a means of maintaining internal order within their group and a means of maintaining external relationships with those outside their group or tribe. Here are some examples illustrating these repeated themes:

The Yuroks had rights to certain fishing places which they owned individually. These rights were passed from father to son or could be given to anyone the owner desired to give them to. Anyone who fished there had to pay the owner the fishtails of the fish he caught.

The Eskimos regard the land and the game as belonging to everyone because they are all at the mercy of the "great woman" who lies at the bottom of the sea and sends out the game.

In order to raise status from a permanent hamlet to a true Ma'anyan village, a settlement must give a costly ceremony called /gawe/ which honors Dewata, a crocodile spirit. According to legend, a maiden named Siris Gading Lusun married Dewata when his spirit was in the shape of a man. She was then carried off to her husband's watery kingdom. The girl's parents were upset, and were afraid they would never see her again. But Siris Gading Lusun sent word to her father and mother saying that if they wanted to see her again they should give the ceremony called /gawe/. The girl then instructed them in the necessary ritual and the making of the required paraphernalia. During the /gawe/ ceremony a water guardian statue is made and placed in the river and this becomes Dewata's residence when he returns for the annual spirit propitiation ceremony. When /gawe/ is given, a spiritual protective shield is put around the settlement's territory so that enemies and sickness may not enter. Only after a settlement has given /gawe/ may it erect land guardian statues and houses for ancestral spirits; then it becomes a true village.

Australian officials just couldn't believe that the aborigines refused to leave some of their practically worthless land to move somewhere else. Only when they found out the religious value of their land could they understand their reluctance to leave. Certain religious rites could be celebrated only in these sacred places. Compare this to the Zionist Jews' love for Jerusalem, the Mohammedans' adoration of Mecca, and the Japanese reverence for the shrine of Ise.

There is a tendency for a Yanomamo group to want to enlarge the group after it becomes independent. They try to keep marriages within the group and welcome additions of families from other villages. But as the village grows, it becomes increasingly difficult to keep order and peace. By the time a village approaches 100 to 150 people, fights over women are so frequent that the group decides to split rather than try to keep an uneasy internal peace. Members of one group may start a garden somewhere else even while relations are peaceful so they'll be ready to leave when necessary. Even when the group splits, they remain close enough to be able to aid each other when raids threaten them.

The Ayore have divided the land they roam in into 8 or 9 general divisions. Each group gets its name from the type of land they live in, like the grassland people, the pig people, the town's people, etc.

The Kwakiutl territories are owned by groups or communities. A group will own specific hunting territories, wild berry and wild root picking territories, and fishing territories. The fishing territories are along the shore, way out in the ocean, and in the rivers. Sometimes a group owns a place that is quite a ways away while another far-off group owns territory right by the first group's home.

The Tarahumara classify themselves as "sons of god" and everyone else in the world as "sons of the devil". It is all very simple for the Tarahumaras; and judging from the way foreigners behave in their part of the world, they have some very valid reasons for such an opinion.

The tall, lanky Dinkas who stroll naked into the Arab towns along the upper Nile are generally quite scornful both of the Arabs and the Europeans. Dinkas regard themselves as being quite superior. There is no question that they are superior in height, because they tower head and shoulders above white men. But they also regard their family and clan structure as superior and they consider themselves better behaved - at least they don't get so violently drunk or fight such devastating wars.

The Batusi have utter contempt for the Bahutu, who make up more than 90% of the population. They remember that their Nilotic, cattle-herding ancestors came down from the north and conquered the Bahutu. They let their cattle wander wherever they want, almost totally disregarding the Bahutu's rights.

On the other hand, the Bahutu look down on the Batwa, pygmies who live in small groups in isolated areas. They regard them as little better than an animal. They do carry on business with them though. When a pygmy wants to buy a pitcher of beer to drink, the Bahutu will go and place it on the ground, then stand off at least ten feet while the pygmy drinks.

The general term for the "indian" groups of Borneo is "Dayak", which is applied to all the non-Moslem indigenous ethnic groups of Borneo. Traditionally, no Bornean groups called themselves Dayak since

the term has the worse meaning of "hick" or "yokel." However, in the twentieth century many of Borneo's ethnic groups have come to accept the name, adopting it to symbolize the solidarity of anti-nationalistic feeling existing among Dayak tribes in opposition to "foreigners" such as the Chinese and Malays.

The word "Tiwi" doesn't mean "people" in the sense of all human beings but rather, "we, the only people", or the chosen people who live on and own the islands, distinct from any other human beings who might show up from time to time on the beaches.

The Gururumba show why they exist as a unified group by explaining how they came to be. There is a story telling of a time when the upper Asaro Valley was largely uninhabited. People from the lower valley went into it to hunt and gather but didn't live there. One certain village used it the most. One day a fight broke out in this village because a man killed a pregnant woman for stealing some mushrooms he had been saving for his supper. The fight divided the village into several warring parts which each moved into a part of the upper valley for defense. They stayed there and the Gururumba were one of these groups.

This doesn't provide much actual history but it does tell us that they think of themselves as a social unit in existence over a long period of time. Also, they don't consider themselves as descending from one ancestor but from a group originally organized to occupy and defend this territory. They are just descendants of this group who remain committed to common defense of the territory.

The Kalapalo refer to Indians outside their region as "fierce Indians." This category of human beings is made up of those whose behavior is unpredictably angry and violent. Peaceful, generous behavior is the distinctive feature of the category "people of Upper Xingu society" which includes themselves. They conceive of themselves and other Upper Xingu villagers as a unique people, different from all other human beings. Both categories, "human beings" and "people of Upper Xingu society", are labeled by the same term /kuge/. They also distinguish between what they eat and what other people eat, having a separate term for each.

In each Yanomamo village, one man is the headman and he rarely has to prove his fierceness like all other men do because he is already established as fierce and people look up to him. He has definite responsibilities and in some situations he is called upon to exercise his authority. The only time he acts like a leader is during an incident that he has to use his authority. After the incident is over, he goes about his own business like the other men in the group. But even then, he sets an example for the others, particularly in the way he tries to produce a lot of food for his family and for the guests he must entertain. Most of the time he leads only by example and the others follow if they want to. They can ignore his example if they wish but most of the people turn to him when a difficult situation arises.

Although the Kalapalo don't concretely define or name a position of authority, certain men are village leaders just because of their actions. A leader is one who has considerable prestige which he gains by being generous and having a generally generous attitude. Because of this, friends and family look up to him and he naturally exercises some amount of control over them.

Before having people help with a task, like repairing a house, etc., he must hold a ceremony in which everyone participates. He works hard to provide food for everyone, which is considered payment for their participation in the ceremony rather than for the work itself. Then the leader will organize the project and the men will carry it through. In the end, he will just watch and not help out with the actual labor.

Ayore leadership is broken down into three areas: Asutey, Witchdoctors called Diknik, and Edugenay.

The Asutey are the least powerful but very important leaders. They are the leaders of the small hunting bands that roam through the jungle, and are responsible for their small group of 25 or 30, protecting them and providing for them when they are away from the main group.

The most important group, Edugenay, is responsible for a larger group made up of these smaller groups, consisting of over 100 people. An Edugenay is responsible for the total provision of all these people and they look up to him. He handles marriage problems and kills children of a marriage that is disintegrating. The Edugenay obtain chieftainship by having killed other men and receive power by the blood shed. These men have proven their bravery in war and hunting, killing tigers and other men. Each Edugenay also has to be a Diknik - a witchdoctor - although all witchdoctors aren't Edugenays. An Edugenay has to be powerful enough to heal people whose sickness had been caused by other witchdoctors; in other words, more powerful than other witchdoctors.

Among the Kalinga, a Mangol is the man who has the highest rank and is the most greatly feared and respected. He gains power and influence over a number of years. He starts by going on a headhunting expedition and just observes. This earns him a tattoo. Later, he helps more and will eventually kill a man and continually add to his victims. People will begin watching him during feasts, listening to his boastings. He will begin to feel power and talk with informal councils, eventually being drawn in with them. He will become an "arbiter" (one who helps settle disputes). He is hospitable and generous, will hold feasts, and begin to acquire heirloom possessions. He can acquire 1 or 2 mistresses who help raise his prestige. This is the pinnacle of headhunting success. Mongol status is achieved and can't be passed on.

The Bunyoro have much 'royal ritual' involved with the kingship. This king is mystically identified with the whole country, meaning that he must keep physically fit, avoid all contact with death, and all sick animals or people near him have to be removed. If his illness is serious or if he grows old and feeble, he will either kill himself by taking poison or be killed by one of his wives. This is because his health directly affects the health of everyone in the country.

He also has to keep in good ritual or spiritual condition. Because of this he has to observe certain ceremonial acts and avoidances. Even his many attendants have to keep themselves ritually pure. He has to be spoken to and greeted with special words and has a number of distinctive names and titles. The effect of these rituals and ceremonial usages is to stress his importance as head of the state and the source of all political authority within it.

Each village has a small number of law - "adat" - experts. When a matter comes up, they, along with other experts from other villages, consider the matter as a group. They are known and respected as knowledgeable in "adat" matters. In each village there is also a chief officer in "adat" affairs who is usually the foremost "adat" expert in the community. If they are unable to agree on the verdict, the case is suspended and taken to a higher authority, the district "adat" head, for consideration.

Tiv leaders are called mbatsavs and are appointed, not elected. Men who are strong in "tsav" (spiritual, personality power), and advanced in "akombo" (spiritual medicine) must be recognized as leaders because they are.

A Tiv leader's functions are to protect and strengthen the land and maintain order. Anyone who steps out of line fears the power (tsav) of the mbatsav. He also represents his group in the kindred council and decides about disputes among his own group by divination and ordeal. He controls the natural elements for the good of the land and teaches younger men in the area of akombo.

Each leader must maintain and renew their strength by human sacrifice and a ritualistic feast with other mbatsavs. They are greatly feared and honored.

Old Yanomamo women are unique in intervillage warfare and politics. Raiders won't hurt or kill them. Thus they can go from village to village not worrying about physical danger. They are used as messengers and sometimes as recoverers of bodies. If a man is killed near an enemy village, an old woman is permitted to recover his body. All women have an influence over village politics because they encourage the men to take action against a possible enemy by sarcastically accusing them of being cowards. This helps the women because enemy villages will know they are fierce and won't take the women while they are out collecting firewood or garden produce.

Villages have frequent feasts with each other and trade among each other. Both trading and feasting helps to solidify relationships with their allies even though each village is actually self-sufficient. But they just see the feasts as times to eat a lot, display their possessions, have exciting dances, etc. They don't really acknowledge the relationship between trading and feasting and their dependence on each other.

When a visitor enters a village, he must go to the center of the village clearing and assume the visitor's pose: motionless, head upward, and weapons held vertically next to his face. He must stand there two or three minutes. This signifies that he has come in peace and is announcing his good intentions by standing where all can see him. If the villagers don't like him or don't want him there, they have to shoot him then or not at all. Often the visitor will be shot down right there.

The three major reasons for warfare are woman theft, witchcraft, and stolen cultivated food.

The Kalinga are known for their headhunting practices but actually not many were killed in this way. The main reason for it was to maintain their territorial space. Open encounter was avoided if possible. If there wasn't enough time to get the head, they would just take fingers or a hand. When guns were introduced, they realized they would have to quit fighting because they could kill everyone off so easily.

Apache women were just as fierce as men. Early traders said, "I'll take my chance with the men any day but don't get me into those camps with the women." They would bring prisoners and tie them to a stake, and the women and children would carve them up.

The Maoris have two main rules regarding warfare: 1) No fighting during harvest and, 2) If the enemy lacks food, send them some so they'll be strong enough to fight.