World view can be divided into three categories: knowledge, philosophy, and supernatural, but it is often difficult to separate the three from the explanations of a culture. Keesing attempts to explain them like this: "The story of cultural development can be seen from one facet as involving increased knowledge. Man "knows." He commands truth, exercises scientific control, has self-awareness, etc. Yet there have always been vitally important areas of experience beyond knowledge, which even our present scientific age cannot yet answer: the ultimate meanings of the universe and man's existence in it, the self consciousness of the individual, the crisis of death, the apparent capriciousness of good and bad fortune. Here man invokes more the moods of philosophy, where the emphasis is on externalized and intellectual speculation; and of religion, where it is on faith, emotional involvement, and related action. To the believer inside the system, of course these are also counted part of a total system of truth." (Cultural Anthropology by Keesing 1962:321)

Tribal people have vast knowledge of how to cope with their environment. They know what kind of plants are good for medicine, which are edible and when they are available. They know which kinds of wood make the best house and how to navigate the open sea without compass or sextant. Areas of investigation may include tribal knowledge of physical science and chemical properties (e.g., levers, poisons), methods of reckoning time and distance (calendar), engineering skills, and the systems of counting. Specialized knowledge kept in the hands of experts must be distinguished from knowledge that is general.

Much of this is practical knowledge based on observation and experience. But myth, magic, and supernatural beliefs are also preserved and may be mingled with the experiential knowledge. Consequently a survey of a culture will be slanted by the idiosyncrasies of the individual native's knowledge, as well as from the missionary's observation. Care should be taken to base conclusions on information from a wide range of observations and interviews.

Unknown group in Africa

These people were shepherds. They bought and sold sheep with no method of mathematics except to double and halve and add. Lets say someone wanted to sell 9 sheep at 23 dollars each. ($207). They listed the sheep in one column, the dollars in another. Next they halved the first column and doubled the second until the sheep column was 1. They had no concept of fractions so just ignored them. Even numbers of sheep were considered evil so this number and it's counter part were eliminated from the computation. With those things considered they merely added the dollar column for the total cost of the sheep.

sheep dollars

9 23

4 46 (even numbers of sheep are evil & not calculated)

2 92

1 +184

207 (23 + 184 = 207!)

Try it with your own numbers!!

As pertaining to culture, the dictionary defines philosophy: "the most general beliefs, concepts, and attitudes of an individual or group." We have divided it into four areas...

Fears

What do people fear? What attitudes or actions of others cause fear? What animals, spirits, or natural occurrences (eclipses, earthquakes, etc.) cause fear?

Ideals

What do people strive to be and encourage others to be? Are they interdependent

(Navajo) or independent (U.S.)? How is "best" culturally defined?

Motives

What motivates them or hinders their motivation? Are they motivated by fear of ancestors? By hope of economic gain? By hope of political or social importance?

Themes

What objectives and ideas seem to be stressed more than others? Which ideas run through their culture and touch almost every area of life? What is the basis for the choices and decisions they make?

It must be emphasized that the general philosophy of a tribe is the sum of all the individual philosophies. We cannot assume to know the philosophies of a culture by investigating only a few people.

"No people so far studied have been found to be without belief in supernatural powers of some kind. However effectively man deals with the problems of life by practical measures, there is always a margin of uncertainty, and often of anxiety, when propitiation of supernatural powers is resorted to in public or private worship or rite, and the accompanying emotions of awe and reverence can often be observed.

"Beliefs that presume the existence of spiritual beings are commonly described as religious, while those referring to powers that do not presuppose the necessary existence of such beings are called magical. Often there is no clear separation in the ideas and practices of the simpler people between the two classes of belief.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

"Ritual, like etiquette, is a formal mode of behavior recognized as correct, but unlike the latter it implies the belief in the operation of supernatural agencies or forces. Religion is characterized by a belief in, and an emotional attitude toward the supernatural being or beings, and a formal mode of approach (ritual) towards them. There are usually myths connected with the body of beliefs and these are reflected in both the form and content of the ritual.

It must be noted that various kinds of beliefs may be held in one society at the same time. Belief in a High God may coexist with belief in numerous other spiritual agencies, as well as with an ancestor cult or totemism. (Notes and Queries 1967:175)

To the tribal person, contact with a supernatural being is far more than just an emotional experience. He is genuine in his attempt to either manipulate the supernatural into some course of action, or in his attempt to appease. He doesn't just think his religion is practical, he stakes his life on it.

Magical Beliefs and Practices

"In magic, no appeal is made to spirits. The desired end is believed to be achieved directly by the ritual technique itself, i.e. by the use of the appropriate actions, objects or words. The action, formula, or object is believed to have dynamic power in itself and is set in action by the volition of someone who has the necessary knowledge. It is clear that many religious experts practice magic, and much religious ritual contains magical elements. Nevertheless, systems of magic apart from religion may figure in the life of a people, especially in connection with economic activities, law and justice, and medicine.

"Magic may be used to fortify the individual or community in any undertaking such as love, war, hunting, gardening, and other economic pursuits. The virtue of magic may be held to lie in the objects used, the oral formula (spell), the person of the magician or magical expert, or all three.

"The magical expert may gain his power by knowledge and training; he may buy it, or inherit it. It may reside in some part of his person. He may have to observe special taboos or a special regime of life on account of his magic." (Notes and Queries 1967:187)

It is important to investigate the methods by which knowledge is passed on (enculturation). Assumptions are going to be made and syncretism will occur based on conflict between the gospel and tribal magic or religion.

"There is not always a hard and fast distinction between good and bad (black and white) magic, though there usually is a distinction between socially approved and anti-social magic. Sorcery and witchcraft are ritual means of working harm against an enemy. Though usually anti-social they are not necessarily so; sorcery in some cultures is used to detect and punish a criminal. It may be permissible to seek revenge on an evildoer by injuring or killing him or a member of his group by witchcraft. A sorcerer is a person who wittingly directs injurious magic on others. He may be able to injure by the power of thought, or may have the "evil eye." Such persons may keep their power secret, or it may be known and they may derive power from it. They may be regarded as public enemies, or may be tolerated and employed to wreak evil on personal enemies.

"Witchcraft is distinguished from sorcery in that it is generally believed to be a power, more for evil than for good, lodged in an individual himself or herself (the witch). It may be inborn, hereditary or acquired by undergoing special rites (e.g. "Melina" of the Yuroks). It may be believed to act on others without the volition of the witch, bringing sickness, death or other misfortune on the victim. In many societies evil witchcraft is regarded as a crime and proved witches are punished by banishment or death. Elsewhere it may be regarded as a sickness which can be cured by magic-religious treatment. Where there is witchcraft, there are usually special cults or ritual experts for detecting and combating witches. (Notes and Queries 1967:188,189)

Ritual and Medicine

"The belief, so widely held, that ill-health, accident, and death do not occur from natural causes alone, brings much of medicine under the heading of ritual and belief. The investigator should, therefore, observe in addition to the practical methods of treatment by drugs, massage, manipulation, inoculation, etc., the ritual connected with these practices.